The Gaels, Gauls and Celts
Although this is debatable, the short answer is that all Gauls and/or Gaels are Celts but not all Celts are Gaels and/or Gauls. "Celt" is the broader term that includes both.
Define Gauls: Celtic peoples living in the Po valley in northern Italy and on the other side of the Alps between the Mediterranean and the Rhine River.
Define Gaels: A linguistic group in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man, whose language is one that is Gaelic (Goidelic). The word in English was adopted in 1810 from Scots gaedheal (compare Irish gaoidheal) to designate a Highlander. Gael or Gaoidheal was first used as a collective term to describe people from Ireland; it was a Welsh word, meaning raiders.
Define Celts: A category of people who flourished from about 750 to 12 BC During this time, they were the most powerful group in central and northern Europe. Although the Celts were composed of many different tribes, they shared similar languages, technology, customs, artistic styles, and beliefs. By AD 60 the Romans had destroyed their power. After that, only the Celtic tribes in the more remote areas of Europe, such as the British Isles, survived.
The Gaels or Gauls
So then at one time, the earliest Celts who were major players in the world were the Gauls controlling an area extending from France to Switzerland. They united to ransack Rome and later invaded Greece; migrating to Asia Minor to found their own, independent culture there, as the Galatians. Through invasion and migration, they spread into Spain, and later crossed the Alps into Italy, permanently settling in the area south of the Alps, which the Romans then named, Cisalpine Gaul.
The Gauls were a tribal and agricultural society, ruled by kings with individuals reigning only over small areas. Occasionally a single powerful king could gain the allegiance of several kings an “Overlord” if you will, but on the whole the Gauls were largely an ethnic connection or union rather than a single nation.
Ethnic identity among the early Gauls was very fluid, first and foremost based on small kinship groups, or clans. This fundamental ethnic identity often collapsed into the larger identity of the tribes themselves. Kinship was the main political structure, organized around this tribal ethnic identity. Generally, the Gauls didn’t have a larger ethnic identity that united them in a single cultural group, the "Gauls" as an ethnic group was largely invented by the Romans and the Greeks and applied to all the diverse tribes spread across northern Europe. The Gauls did have a sense of territorial society; writing tells us that there were sixteen separate territorial nations of Gauls. These territorial groups were divided into a series of pagi (sub-districts), or military units composed of men who had voluntarily united as fellow soldiers.
The Celts
The Celts were a group of peoples that occupied lands stretching from the British Isles to Gallatia. The Celts had many dealings with other cultures that bordered the lands occupied by these peoples, and even though there is no written record of the Celts stemming from their own documents, we can piece together a fair picture of them from archeological evidence as well as historical accounts from other cultures.
The Gauls, however, were not the original Europeans. Beginning in an area around Switzerland, the Celts spread westward and eastward displacing native Europeans in the process. These migrations begin around 500 BC. The Gaulish invasion of Italy in 400 was part of this larger emigration. The Romans, however, pushed them back by the third century BC; native Europeans in the north, however, were not so lucky.
Two Celtic tribes, the Cimbri and the Teutones ("Teuton," an ethnic for Germans, is derived from the Celtic root for "people") emigrated east and settled in territory in Germany. The center of Celtic expansion, however, was Gaul, which lay north of the Alps in the region now within the borders of France and Belgium and part of Spain.
GAELIC CELTIC CULTURE
FAMILY - the extended family ('fine' or 'clann') was the basic social unit, consisting of several generations of descendants from one ancestor. When several families settled in a particular territory they formed a 'tuath', ruled over by a chieftain or a petty king. There were some 150 tuatha, or kingdoms, in ancient Ireland.
The family group, or Clann, formed the very foundation of Brehon law. Each Clan group was responsible for the actions of each of its members. Yet it went beyond this, because responsibility aside, one never turned their back on family or another member of the family. Family stuck beside one another regardless of differences. The only exception to this was when the family name had been dishonored. For a family to turn it’s back on one of it’s own required much more than the petty disagreements which bust families apart in the modern era.
Kinship and lineage provided a real tangible link to the area where one lived. Kinship insured rights to build a home on and use in other ways the land of the Clan. Belonging to a family also insured inheritance, legal protection, and the right to follow a particular craft as well as many other benefits.
The family unit played an important role in the education of the young. It provided a stable setting for the transmission of cultural knowledge. In the Gaelic “beul aithris” (oral tradition), grandparents, aunts and uncles, parents and foster parents passed on their knowledge, whether it be story or song or skill.
The family also once functioned as an integrated economic unit in which all its members engaged in various work tasks according to age, experience and aptitude.
Within the Gaelic home, not all children remained with their parents. It was quite common to find that children had been sent to be educated in a trade and also reared in the home of another family. In Ireland fosterage was still an active custom as late as the eighteenth century. The special circumstances of the fosterage relationship allowed for very tight bonds to be established between families. In the modern Gaelic tribe we still foster, but the norm is only for some period within the summer vacation from school.
FAIRS, FESTIVALS AND BANQUETS - These were important occasions which brought together all parts of society. Participation in the festivities was compulsory!
(Not to enjoy the life you had been given was an insult). Guests were seated according to rank. The "champion's portion" was awarded to the warrior who showed the greatest courage.
To hold a good banquet was a matter of much prestige. It was considered good
form to invite the 'aes dana' (people of the arts - bards, musicians, smiths, etc.). Songs were sung, legends retold, and clan genealogies recited. Also, at festivals, settlements and judgments of legal cases were made, and handfasting contracts signed. However, no enmity was allowed to exist, no debt could be collected nor weapon lifted.
The Ancestors didn’t celebrate eight festivals in the year, as do modern neo-pagans. Instead they celebrated the four solar events associated with the pastoral peoples, which inhabited the Isles before the coming of the Roman, Saxon, Jute and Angle. These times are those commonly referred to as Samhain, Oimelc, Beltinna, and Lughnasdh. The proper names of the festivals are Oi/che Shamhna, La/ Fhe/ile Bríde, La/ Bealtaine, and La/Fhe/ile Lu/nasa.
Another things that must be remembered when figuring the reckoning of days that
our ancestors used, is that they were pastoral people. This means that their days were from sunset to sunset. This little fact, which goes unnoticed by most, is the reason for several manifestations in Celtic society. These include such things as their use of the 13-month lunar calendar.
HEARTH - The hearth was of central importance in Celtic society, and its foundation
was the marriage contract. Within the hearth the woman's authority was absolute.
The hearth was the center of much activity, where many traditional crafts were carried out; it also provided warmth and nourishment, it was a gathering place for storytelling and music, and it had to be an open place of hospitality to all.
HONOUR PRICE - Honour price, or ‘eneclann’, was a central feature of the Brehon
Law. It was an intricate system of prices paid above and beyond actual damages that one my have suffered at the hands of another. The higher a persons position in society the higher their honor price was. Honour price was, in effect, a method for both making sure that agreements were abided by as well as to restore face to someone who had lost it.
In the modern Gaelic Tribe we have simplified the formula for Honor Price to one that is applied to all of the People in the Tribe. This formula is 1/3 for something out of ones power, 3 times for reason of sloth or carelessness, and nine times for reason of malice.
HOMOSEXUALITY - While the evidence is scant there are some real pieces to give
us an understanding of the attitudes toward homosexual behavior. The first evidence is the importance placed upon the warrior segment of the social structure. Anthropologists have ascertained that homosexual behavior runs very high amongst those societies with a strong warrior impulse. There are also the brief statements by the Roman chroniclers, which tell that it was common for people of the same gender to share the same bed. This seems to be born out in the story of CuChullain, as even these centuries latter, the redactors hand aside, there is still told of Cuchullains love for and sharing the bed with
Ferdiad.
It would seem that our ancestors had no particular concern with whom people had sexual relations. Marriage unions were seen to be civil affairs. The Brehon Law itself has as it’s main concern the progeny which come out of a union. There is no prohibition against homosexual behavior specifically. Sexual acts before a union were of no concern to the union, and any sexual partners outside the union are by the evidence okay so long as such is acceptable to the terms of the marriage contract.
HOSPITALITY - A very important aspect of Celtic life. Both the hosts and the guests were expected to observe certain social customs. The host had to provide food, drink, a warm bed if possible, and entertainment. They had to give the very best they had for not to do so was a gross insult. Once the guests had partaken of the hearth's hospitality, the hosts were obliged to refrain from any violence or quarreling with them, for the guests were under the protection of the dun from then on. The guests would be expected to make an offering to the hearth of cakes, bread, wine etc. according to their ability. They must
show respect to the hosts and not cause quarrels, fights or disruptions during their stay. They would normally be expected to sing a song, play a tune, or tell a tale.
KINSHIP - The kinship group, and not the individual, was of utmost importance in the Laws of our Ancestors. The kinship group was responsible for the actions of all its members. 'Eric fine' had to be paid by the whole family on behalf of any transgressors of the law. Kinship also ensured a right to shares in any family inheritance or ‘derbhfine’.
LAW - The social structure of Iron Age Celtic society was highly developed. It was a tribal society that was bonded together by a complex system of laws and social customs. The established body of Law was known as 'Fenechas', the law of the Feine (Freemen), or more commonly, the Brehon Law. This body served the People for centuries.
The most common body of Brehon Law was codified in 438 CE, by the order of
Laighaire, a High King of Ireland. The proceedings by which this work was done by Three Kings, Three Brehona (Recitors of the Law), and Three Christian missionaries. By this act Pagan Fili and Christian Monk came together and worked out a set of laws that was workable for people of both religions. The body of that law has been transmitted to us in the volumes known as the Senchus Mor.
The body of Law knows as Brehon Law, as contained in the Senchus Mor is a body of national law. However, national law was secondary to local law. Whether local or national it was the Brehons who acted as the recitors of the Law. There has been some confusion about who acted as the judge. It was the nobility who acted as such. As stated the Brehons were the recitors of the Law. After the Brehon had recited the Law, only then could the King or Queen render a decision. This is why lore is replete with examples of the Kings or Queens Druid, actually the Ard-Fili, having the right to speak before the king. If the Brehon, who was a member of the intellectual/skilled caste, recited the law incorrectly they were expected to forfeit their fee and pay damage costs.
The Brehon laws were responsible for regulating how people interacted. Hospitality, etiquette and other things were set out in ways that left little room for doubt. The codes of behavior established in the Law such that all members of a family had to adhere to it. Codes of behavior and levels of responsibility were laid down in the laws for each social group. The more responsibility a social group had, the more restrictions were placed on them. Status was determined by the ownership of cattle and a few other things. There
was no concept of land ownership in early Celtic society. This stands in sharp contrast to the Roman and Anglo patterns.
In the modern Tribe we primarily utilize the Triads as our body of Law. We see the Triads as a contraction containing the very Spirit of the Brehon Law. We are also bringing forward applicable sections of the Law for use today.
MARRIAGE - To our Ancestors marriage was a civil matter wholly. The only “religious” aspect given to it was through keeping the oaths specified in the contract by which the marriage became official. The marriage contract, as the very foundation of the hearth, had certain things that it addressed. The first of all topics was the well-being of any progeny which issued from the union.
After that the Law addressed such topics as the assets of the parties to the union and other arrangements. We utilize the marriage contract in the modern Tribe for the very same reasons. The side benefit of the contract, in the modern era at least, is that it causes the parties to learn to communicate about topics that they would probably not otherwise. Traditionalist marriages last much longer, even for the life times of the parties involved, probably because of the deep levels of communication that the process causes.
NOBILITY - The King or Queen (Righ or Rian respectively) was the central part of the social structure. They were responsible for harmony between the tribe and the land, and also for the prosperity of the tribe. It was their job to make sure that all of the people prospered as well as existed in good repute.
They had to be generous. If they were stingy they would suffer the poet's satire, or Glam Diccin, (a formidable weapon in Celtic society). This could well cause their king/queenship be taken from them, much as Bres saw his reign removed from him by the will of the People. They also had to be without blemish in intelligence, character and physiology. The nobility was responsible for the redistribution of wealth in their kingdom, by means of banquets and donating gifts. In contrast to the later patterns imported by Saxons and Normans, the position of nobility was not something that was a matter of inheritance amongst our early ancestors.
In the modern Gaelic tribe we have forbidden the position of Ard-Righ or Ard-Rian, instead having a Taoiseach. The Clanns in the revitalized Tribe may still have a Righ and/or Rian, though the interaction at the Tribal level is still through the Ard-Fili of each Clann as well as the Fili of each Clann.
RELIGION - It is conventional wisdom to think that the Druids were the priesthood of the Celtic peoples. Even as astute a scholar as Piggott has referred to them as such. This misconception is one that arose as a result of the British Celtic Revival of the 18th Century. The basis for this idea was a quote of Caesar which in fact never existed. Fortunately there are now researchers such as Ellis who are finally putting this to rest.
Those who have spent any time at all researching the religious practices of the Gaelic Celts have come away seeing that our ancestors mediated the Gods on their own behalf. This is such easily ascertained knowledge as to now be in the domain of pop culture and new age writers which pose the subject in trendy ways.
The actual religious practices of our ancestors are more accurately expressed as votive in nature. The actual practices being a matter of hymns and incantations recited during the act of living or working of an actual skill (smooring the fire, woulking, forging steel, etc.), as well as special little actions done at appropriate times such as placing out milk and food at night for the Gentry, which in actuality are the Gods of old. Even the practices such as tying bits of colored cloth to tree limbs at wells and on special occasions are testimonies to the votive nature of our ancestral religion. Magick was, and is, seen to
be part and parcel of the various little things said and done as a part of every act in everyday living. For our ancestors, as for ourselves, there is no separating the Sacred from the everyday, every thought word and deed and every moment of every day is sacred. Special formalized ritual played a very small part in the traditional religious practices of our ancestors.
SOCIETAL STRUCTURE - The ancient Celt saw that there were three legs upon which the Cauldron of the World stood. They, as Tribal peoples the world over have
done, based the basic structure of their society off what they perceived as the basic structure of the cosmos. It was centuries after the tribal beginnings of our culture that Dumezil saw that the same basic format was found in most Indo-European societies. Amongst the Gael these three legs of the Cauldron of our ancestral society is Fili, Ruadh, and Aire. In the modern Gaelic Tribe this division is used more as an incentive for individuals to quest after self-betterment through the acquisition of knowledge and skill than anything else.
TUATH - Beyond a family member's particular tuath, or tribal land, they could not normally be guaranteed legal protection, unless formerly agreed between tuatha. If a person was banished from their ancestral lands, always as a result of some actual crime, then they became free game to any who crossed their path.
WOMEN - In Celtic culture women were equal in the eyes of the Law up to the
coming of the Romans and Christians. Some patriarchal extremes may have started to be taken on with the continued interaction with Brythonic tribes, however the Laws and customs remained largely unchanged until Christianity became implanted on Irish soil. This was compounded with the coming of the Saxon and then the Norman. Though the Brehon Law remained gender neutral and in power up to the 17th century, patriarchal elements who had gained power over our people interpreted the Law as only applying to men much earlier than this.
The records show that women had the rights to own and disburse property, inherit property and have skills, as well own and use weapons on the field of battle. They also had rights in the construction of their marriage contract, as well as complete authority within their homes. A woman’s authority was in the hearth and the man's on the land.
Traditional Crafts Found In Gaelic Celtic Culture
BASKET MAKING - Wickerwork in all its forms is one of the oldest crafts. Willow and osier are the most common materials used, and they grow easily in all areas. Many different kinds of baskets are made in Ireland for example: the 'cliabh' or creel, for gathering turf; these are used in pairs, one basket on each side of a pony; the 'skib', for harvesting potatoes; the 'ciseog' for straining and serving vegetables; the lusset (losaid), a rectangular basket with wooden sides, also for vegetables.
In Cork and Kerry the 'sciathog' is used, similar but U-shaped, deepest in the centre. In Co. Mayo the 'tiachog' is used for holding eggs. An interesting feature of the larger Irish baskets is that the rim is constructed first, finishing with the base last. Although most people once had the ability to make baskets for their own needs, nevertheless basket making was a specialised craft in its own right. There were many itinerant basket makers, also. They jealously guarded their craft and would not let anyone see them start or finish a basket.
BLACKSMITING - In Celtic society the Smith held a very high status. His apparently magical ability to work with the elements of fire (Sky) and water (Sea) to mold and shape metal (Land) made him seem semi- divine.
His was the rightful claim, that he made everything used by the other skills. So much esteem and honor have traditionally belonged to the smith that it was common for the smith to dine with kings. An example of this is provided with King Conor Mac Nessa of Ulster coming to the house of Culann the master smith for dinner. This was the occasion where Setanta killed Culann’s wolfhound and hence took the place of the animal for a time earning him the name CuChullain (Dog of Culann). Today we still associate one of the main artifacts of the Smith, the horseshoe, with the bringing of Good Luck*.
The Gaelic God of the Forge is Gobhniu, who is referred to in many legends. The Irish word for a BLACKSMITH is 'goba'. Every village had its own Blacksmith, who provided a service for all classes of people - kings, warriors, farmers. Iron was used not only to make weapons, but also agricultural implements, cooking utensils, axles and lynch pins and many other uses.
The Forge ('cerdcha') was an important meeting place for the community, where storytelling and exchanges of news were carried on. The Forge fire was fanned by leather bellows, called 'builgg', which were worked by the bare feet.
The anvil ('inneoin') was placed on a block which stood in the center of the forge. The Smith held the red-hot iron in a 'tennchair' (tongs) then struck it with a heavy 'ord' sledge) on the anvil. It was then plunged into a vat of cold water for 'tempering' the metal. The furnaces were made of specially prepared clay and had to be reconstructed quite
often, using a mold.
There is quite a body of lore revolving around the smithy which is the place where a Smith works. Probably the most well known examples of this lore is found from the Pretanic cousins in which is relayed how the Hounds of Annwnn cannot enter a smithy. Other examples tell of how the Sidhe cannot cross ferrous metal thrown down before them. Each of these had Gaelic counterparts.
BRONZE SMITHING: Bronze, made from copper and tin, was the most common
metallic alloy used (and long before iron was discovered). Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, was also used. The Irish called copper 'uma'.
There were two chief types of Bronze: red bronze, called 'derg-uma' and white bronze, called 'finn-uma' or 'findruine'. White bronze was more expensive, and used mainly for ornamental art. Red bronze was used for cauldrons and weapons.
The most common way used for the working of bronze was with a technique called “sandcasting”. This technique involves carving a model of the object desired out of wood, then embedding the model in water or oil soaked sand. Anciently, our ancestors would dig down into the banks of rivers and streams, then embed the models in the sand thereof, after which they poured the molten bronze into the imprint made in the sand.
CARPENTRY - A little known fact is that amongst the other skills that the Dagda has been associated with is carpentry. Very little lore remains about this skill from the old days. However, among the things that do survive is the custom of the carpenter placing corn dollies in the eves of a new building.
DYEING- Wild plants and berries provided our ancestors with a rich variety of bright colors for their cloth. Most dyes require the use of a 'mordant' to fix the color permanently into the wool. The most common mordants are alum, cream of tartar, ferrous sulphate (iron), tin and bichromate of potash. Formerly, crude native alum could be obtained from wood ash, sheep manure, oak galls, urine and sediments of bog pools.
The dyestuff is immersed in cold water and brought to the boil until the color is released (this can take a few hours for certain barks of trees). The liquid is left to cool, the wool is put in and brought back to the boil, then simmered. Finally the wool is squeezed out and dried.
The oldest plant used in dyeing is lichen. A few recipes:
BLACK - bog pool sediments, yellow flag, elder bark.
BROWN - crottle (lichen); dulse (a form of seaweed), peat soot, water
lily, onion skins
BLUE - blackberries (use alum and salt), sloes, bilberries.
RED - Madder
YELLOW - heather (ling), bracken, dock, autumn crocus
YELLOW/GREEN - Elder leaves plus alum.
The plant matter available in a given region was the main reason that certain plaids had the colors that they did. This of course before the standardization of plaids. For example, Clans that lived where burdock was predominant saw their main color be yellow.
GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS - Gold and silver artifacts have been made by the Celts since earliest times, with great skill and artistic refinement. Gold was used for collars, torcs, bracelets, and goblets. From the 10th and 11th century silver was more commonly used - the Ardagh Chalice and the Brooch of Tara are two of the finest examples. A worker in gold or silver was, like the worker in bronze, called a 'cerd'.
Silver was hand raised using indented tree trunks, then hammered into shape. A silver casting method which goes back 5,000 years is the 'lost wax' method. A model of wax is surrounded by a heat proof material, then heated in the oven to burn out the wax. This leaves a hollow in the material which is an exact negative copy of the wax item. The hollow is then filled with molten metal which is poured into the mold. In olden times mold was then spun around in a sling like apparatus so as to use centrifugal force to push the molten metal into the deepest recesses of the caste.
Much of the detail work traditionally done, was done, by a process called filigree. This process involved actually soldering very fine wires of the metal in use to the main piece. This is how the traditional artisans were capable of creating the very small and detailed raised lines on the pieces they created.
MASONS - This is another skill that has much of its religious aspect missing from official records. What we know from folklore tough is that the masons placed an axe head under either the threshold stone or the top left pillar stone of the steps depending on construction style. Dr. Maria Gimbutas in her book “The Language of the Goddess” may shed some very interesting light on this custom.
PHYSICIANS - This was a skill that was heavily regulated by Brehon Law.
Number of sheets, views of the outside and clean running water being amongst the required things that a Physician had to provide. The physician also had to see the patient for free should a cure not work the first time as well as pay fines if they caused any disfigurement or harm to a patient.
This skill goes back at least as far back as the Tuatha de Danaan. The God of healing is Dianecht. Dianecht had two children who followed him into healing. They were a son named Miach, and a daughter named Airmid. These two children are often seen as the surgeon (Miach) and the herbal healer (Airmid). What is funny is how the jealousies found today between the two branches of healing were there so long ago as well.
SHOEMAKER - we have yet to find much regarding the customs of the cobbler. What we can say however is that Lugh was definitely connected with shoemaking, and was probably the Patron of the Gild of cobblers. The importance of footwear cannot be over estimated when one considers the terrain that folks would be walking over.
SPINNING - While the Spinning Wheel was not invented until the late 15th century. Before this all spinning was carried out using a distaff and spindle. The distaff, or 'cuigeal', was held in the left hand while the spindle was held in the right hand. Both wool and flax were spun by the Celts. The craft of spinning was always carried out by women, and young women had to spin sufficient quantities of yarn to become eligible to marry.
Celtic women tended to be excellent spinners and weavers, and Irish linen is still world famous. Men looked after the gathering fleeces; all other processes were carried out by women only - carding, dyeing, weaving (although this was taken over later by men). Spinning and weaving, like all the ancient crafts, have their deeper, hidden meanings, their Mysteries. Spinning and weaving are particularly associated with the Ancient Goddess of the loom, who weaves the web of Fate. There is some evidence that the “stang”, or forked staff, goes back to the time of this ancient way of weaving. The lore surrounding this implement to wit: the use by women, Fey and Sidhe, etc., mark this
in some minds as belonging to that era and skill. It is however the lore that has draw some neo-Pagans to adopt this tool.
WEAVING - The techniques of weaving have changed little since earliest times. Thread was woven into cloth on a handloom. The larger looms had two beams: 'garmain' - the larger beam, and 'lu- garmain' - the smaller beam. The larger beam was likened to a warrior's spear. The weaving rods were called 'claidim' (swords); these were long laths used during the process of weaving and were almost as long as the beam itself. The warp
was called DLUTH and the weft was called INNECH.
The earliest looms had only one beam, propped up above the ground, with the warp threads strung independently and weighed down with stones. Later a loom with a horizontal frame and a reed to separate the threads was developed. This led in time to the hand thrown shuttle, passed across the web between two sets of warp threads, alternatively raised and lowered.
In Celtic society different castes or professional ranks were only entitled to wear a certain number of colors. This was codified in the Ilbreachta Law, which is a sumptuary law. For example farmers could wear two colors; kings could wear six colors. In general the Celts loved to dress and adorn themselves in bright, well made clothes, which they took great pride in.
* Over a doorway with the ends pointing up is the customary way of keeping a horse shoe. It is said to be a bowl which holds the good in the home that way. This may relate to the crescent Moon.
Celebration Times or Festivals of the Gaelic Celts
When establishing what the important times of the Gaels and other Celts were, it must be remembered that they were a pastoral people. The way they reckoned time was established by the importance of moving livestock from winter pastures to summer pastures and back.
While the Norse broke the Wheel of the Year into an eight-fold plan, the Celts
celebrated four main festivals. The Celtic holidays have come down to us as
Samhain, Imbolc, Beltaine and Lughnasadh.
The festivals with their accompanying fairs held an important position within the social, economic and religious fabric of ancient Celtic society. The social life of the ancient Celtic peoples to a very great extent revolved around the various fairs and markets held during the festivals. This was true not only at the local tribal or clann level, also all across Gaelic Celtic lands.
The various gatherings had different titles, for example the “feis” was a feast of
national significance to which only elected delegates from each region attended.
The most notable one was of course the Feis Tara, which was referred to through-out the ancient Irish legends. There was the “dal”, which was a meeting at the tribe or district level. There was also the “mor-dal”, or great assembly, of which the Tailltenn Fair is probably the most well known example.
The important affairs of each district, region and province were taken care of at the “mor-dal” gatherings. There were council meetings held for the holders of the skills/knowledge, those known to us as the fili, where amongst other things they revised laws. Kings and Queens met to discuss peace and war.
While certain responsibilities were fulfilled by those who held them, the fairs held during the festivals were in general a time of great merriment. Entertainment was always in abundance with poets, musicians, singers, storytellers, games and races. Also in abundance was food and drink. It was a time for everyone to enjoy himself or herself. The fairs saw traders who had traveled great distances, even from overseas, displaying their fine wares. The markets were vibrant places filled with buying and selling, bartering and haggling. The economic infusion into the local economy from these traders, as well as the
redistribution of wealth by the generous gifts of the kings and queens were critically important. The summer fairs were of course was the best time to trade because people usually had some little excess that they could afford to spend, unlike the lean winter months. It was common for young people to find a marriage partner during the fairs. Such fairs were the mainstay of social life in ancient times. They also created opportunities for inter-tribal ties of friendship.
The Brehon Law held that everyone must attend the festivals. To not do so was an insult to the Old Ones in whose honor they were done. These fairs were indeed ordained by the Old Ones themselves as being a necessary part of the social order. Besides, it was after all for Them that the fairs came into existence in the first place. Whoever neglected to attend the fair was apt to receive this warning:
"There comes for the neglect of it baldness, weakness, early grayness, kings without keenness or jollity, without hospitality or truth."
Considering the sacred element of the festivals (fairs), those held during the times of the four great Fire Festivals, were held to be particularly sacred. Not only did the Brehon Law mandate everyone be there, but it also proscribed strict codes of behavior. The most important of these rules was that no-one could start a quarrel or a fight during the festival period. This offense was one of the very few in the old society that was punishable by death.
An oft overlooked component of the fairs is where they were (and even today are in some places) held. The sites themselves had great religious significance and where considered sacred. Under the guidance of the fili, the people came together to enact the passion plays, or re-enactments, of the mythical event which gave sanctity to the land. In Ireland. invariably the ancient provincial centers where these festivals were held, stood on hills, where ancient burial mounds were dedicated to the memory of the founding ancestors who were buried there. More often than not, these founders were a Goddess or
mythological queen.
As to the reckoning of the quarter days, Danaher says in "Irish Folk Tradition and the Celtic Calendar", "they are separated from each other by regular intervals, to be precise, by intervals of 92, 92, 92 and 89 days by our modern calendar reckoning; thus they divide the year into four even quarters which are recognized in popular tradition as the four seasons of the year."
Danaher further states: "These four season days were the outstanding festivals of the Irish folk calendar, and no others approached them in diversity of custom with the exception of the Easter cycle, which is entirely of Christian origin and introduction, completely unknown in pre-Christian Ireland, Christmas which is an inextricable tangle of the Christian celebration and old midwinter custom, all overlaid with more recent additions, and Midsummer, which was mainly marked by bonfires and their associated prayers and ceremonies."
The Solstices and Equinoxes certainly had both Solar and Lunar aspects. These because they were held on the first New moon of the month in which they occurred. Those days were not generally celebrated by our Celtic ancestors. While those other days have a lunar aspect, this is not the case with the cross-quarter days which are the days of the festivals of our Celtic ancestors. Many people have asserted that there was a lunar aspect to these as well, but such is not the case. Danaher also says, "The old Irish four-season year comes entirely from solar reckoning, without any lunar influence whatever. It has a precisely divided solar year, not a year formed by the setting together of a number of lunar months and requiring frequent correction and intercalation." It must be noted that in Irish folk tradition there is no reckoning of time by the moon.
Regarding any lore about the Moon, there are only scant amounts. This in sharp contrast to the tomes of lore about the Sun. Before this can be construed to be any kind of proof that the Celts were harsh patriarchs, I must at this point out that amongst our ancestors the Sun was feminine. This is evidenced by even Her name which is still carried in modern Irish, Griann. Bride is also considered by many scholars to be the Sun.
Danaher’s conclusion, which is shared by many other scholars, was that while the continental Celts reckoned time by both solar and lunar alignments in their calendar, as illustrated by Coligny Calendar, such was not true for the insular Celts who make up the Gaels. The Coligny Calendar has no relevance to Gaelic Celts. Yet the festivals which our ancestors celebrated were also celebrated by continental Celts. Also like our ancestors, neither did the continental Celts celebrate the solstices and equinoxes.
There were definite customs which were common at all four Quarter Days. These included such as their being valued as Holy days. The need-fire, or communal bon-fire was ritually kindled, though on only two of these days were household fires extinguished and re-lit from the need-fires. These were the days when the sick or barren visited the Holy Wells. On these days too, those who were particularly adept at spells and charms were careful to rise before the sun to ensure no ill was coming their way. In some places, young women made careful note of the first male they met, for it was believed that the surname of the first man they met on a Qurter Day would be the surname she would take when she married. The first Monday (Moonday) of the new quarter was believed to be a
particularly good day. This day was also held to be amongst the best for a form an augury called “frith”.
A common custom dating back to our traditional ancestors was the baking of the bonnock. This was a piece of bread which was prepared in a specific way. It was in a very real way, a form of communion enacted in individual hearths, between the people of that hearth and the Gods. Each of the Festival Days had a bannock that was named for it. “Bonnock Bride”, was for Imbolg; “Bonnack Bealtain” for Beltain; “Bonnock Lunastain” for Lughnasadh; as well as “Bonnock Samhain” for Samhain, were the names. In many places these were given a Christian veneer and were practiced even into the modern era.
Unlike modern paganism, with its emphasis on Judaic ceremonialism, the traditional ways were votive in nature. Instead of deep mysteries withheld from the people, all of the people would assemble on the sacred hill and sing hymns to the sun. It began just prior to daybreak, with incantation by the king or queen. Then all of the people would sing together, rejoicing and giving thanks.
Samhain:
Samhain is the beginning of the Celtic new year. In the Gregorian calendar that we use today, it falls on approximately November 1st. This is the time when the rising of Pleiades, heralds the triumph of night over day. Now it is the “time of the little sun” and the portion of the year which is ruled by the realms of the moon.
In the three days preceding the Samhain, the God of Light Lugh, dies at the hand of his Tanist, who is himself as the Lord of mis-rule. Lugh then passes through the veil between the worlds on Samhain. The Tanist is a stingy and harsh King who while shining brightly in the skies gives no warmth to the land. He cannot warm the north wind which is the breath of the Crone, Cailleach Bheare. This is indicative of the cyclic harmony of seasonal dominance. Which teaches us that neither Life nor Death can ever hold permanent sway?
Death was never far from our ancestors, and there was not the fear of it that permeates the society we live in. Yet while death itself wasn’t feared, it was held important to die with honor. Through dying well, people had the promise of living on in this world through their clann and at “Fleadh nan Mairbh” (Feast of the Dead). It is at this time the ancestors were honored and the dead were remembered. This feast took place on Samhin Eve. In many ways it is very similar to the Mexican "Day of the Dead.”
This is one of two times in the year when the veil between this world and OtherWorld, the Shield of Skathach, is at it’s thinnest. For this reason it was a time of divination. This day was considered to be a day that did not exist. Because of this the Spirits of the Dead and those yet to be born of the Clann walked freely amongst the living. Food and entertainment were provided in their honour. In this way the Clann remained in unity with its past, present and future.
The common modern practice of carving pumpkins in the States, and turnips in the old countries stem from the days when our ancestors were active head hunters. They believed that the spirit resided in the head. They also believed that if they controlled the head of a foe they had killed in battle, and displayed the head at Samhain, then that foe could do them no further ill during this time when they could again walk in this realm. This practice was modified in the times after the rise to domination by Christianity. It was however remolded into the practice of carving vegetables with the same intent. That being to keep away harm intending spirits.
It was a time of fairs and festivities. As with all the fire festivals, fires were lit on
the hilltops Samhain. This festival was one of the two when all hearth fires were extinguished and re-lit from the communal bonfires. The cattle were driven back from the mountains where they had been sent for the summer. At this time of their return they were driven between two bonfires to purify and protect them. People and cattle both had now returned from the hills and glens to their winter quarters and were engaged in actively re-tying the social bonds.
Just prior to this, the stores that had been put up had been assessed. Part of this
assessment was how many could be fed during the cold months ahead. Rather than have whole herds starve to death in the winter, the herds were culled and the weakest harvested and the meat was preserved. The taking of life was done in a sacred way, and the utilitarian killing of the excess livestock had a sacrificial nature. Another area were the religious philosophy is addressed was in the bonds of kinship which were renewed in the Clann spirit that was invoked at this time of year. Traditionally Samhain is the when starts the time of storytelling by the fires of the hearth, as there isn’t much to do outside during this “time of the little sun.”
Imbolc-
Imbolc is the Festival of Brighid. Approximately February 2nd. Brighid is invited into the house on the eve of this holiday. Candles were blessed. Auguries were often taken at this time. This was the season when lambs were born.
From Samhain to Imbolc was considered the winter. It was a time that has always been known to Celtic peoples as 'the period of the little sun'. As there were few daylight hours during the season of cold work outdoors, the family spent their time round the fire which was the source of their light, heat and warming food. It was also the gathering point for the seannachaidh (story teller) who, with the fire of inspiration, would tell the stories of the People. The sacred fire is strongly associated with Bride. Her name translates as 'fiery arrow'. One of her aspects is the Goddess of poetry and it is She who is the 'flame of inspiration'. Another term given to Bride is 'the flame in the heart of all women'. This relates to the absolute authority of the woman in the house. Imbolc was a
fire festival only for the household.
During Imbolc, particular attention was paid to the hearth fire. Throughout the day it was kept specially fueled with specific woods, to welcome Her arrival. Great care was taken over the smooring of the fire on that night when a rowan rod was placed in the heart of the fire. The following morning, before it was opened up, the fire was checked for the signs of a blessing from Her. The mark in question was a shape that looked like the foot print of a goose or swan. If a mark was found there was an extremely fortunate time ahead for the family. The associations between Brides and the goose or swan is also found in some of the incantations in the Carmina Gadelica by Alexander Carmichael. “The Language of the Goddess” by Dr. Maria Gimbutas goes a long way toward helping
understand the meaning of the “Bird Foot Goddess.”
Beltaine:
This season ended at Beltaine. Approximately May 1st. Bonfires were lit and the cattle were set out to pasture in the mountains, driven between the bonfires to purify them. Beltaine - beginning of summer and a fertility festival. The following is a poem translated out of the Gaelic by the Dal Riadh Celtic Trust and said to be written by Finn himself
May, clad in cloth of gold, Cometh this way; The fluting of the blackbirds Heralds the day.
The dust coloured cuckoo Cries welcome O Queen! For winter has vanished, The thickets are green.
Soon the trampling of cattle where river runs low! The long hair of the heather, The canna like snow.
Wild waters are sleeping, Foam of blossom is here; Peace, save the panic, In the heart of the deer.
The wild bee is busy, The ant honey spills, The wandering kin, Are abroad on the hills.
The harp of the forest Sounds low, sounds sweet; Soft bloom on the heights; On the loch, haze of heat.
The waterfall dreams; Snipe, corncrakes, drum By the pool where the talk Of the rushes is come.
The swallow is swooping; Song swings from each brae; Rich harvest of mast falls; The swamp shimmers gay.
Happy the heart of man, Eager each maid; Lovely the forest, The wild plane, the green glade.
Truly winter is gone, Come the time of delight, The summer truce joyous, May, blossom-white.
In the heart of the meadows The lapwings are quiet; A winding stream Makes drowsy riot.
Race horses, sail, run, Rejoice and be bold! See, the shaft of the sun Makes the water-flag gold.
Loud, clear, the blackcap; The lark trills his voice Hail May of delicate colours tis May-Day - rejoice!
Amongst the folk lore of this holiday is that which survives to this day, in that young women will wash their face in the due of Beltain morning to preserve their youth. May dew was indeed considered to be holy water. This day was one which saw visits to the holy well. A visitor would walk three times around the well, then they would throw in a silver coin, after which while thinking of their wish they would drink from the well using their hands. When those things were done, they would then ties a bit of colored cloth or a piece of clothing to a branch of a nearby tree. The above had to be done in complete silence as well as when the sun wasn’t insight. The final part of the procedure had the visiting person well out of sight of the well before sunrise. As like the other festivals, games and racing were the norm. With the marches and races, horses were a prominent feature. There was to be found the usual music and singing, markets and feasting. In many places, a May Queen was elected. She was crowned by an elder lady of notoriety, after the new queen and her court had arrived at a predetermined place. Some believe that in the older times, it was the May Queen who led the hymns to the rising sun, as all the
people congregated on the appropriate hill at Beltain. She is also believe to have led some of the “marches” in the older times.
Lughnassadh -
We can trace Lugh back to the Pretanic Celts. Here He is the son of Arianrhod and Gwydion. While Arianrhod gave birth to him, Lugh was taken away by his father, who was also his uncle, and raised by him. However, by the old traditions there are certain things that can only be given by the mother. One of these is the name and Arianrhod refused to do so when Gwydion brought him to her. She said, "Why do you prolong my shame? He shall have no name until I give it to him." The next day Lugh was practicing when Arianrhod remarked, "The fair one has a skillful hand." Which is the meaning of is name, “skillful hand”, amongst the Pretani. She was absolutely livid at having been tricked so she swore that he would have no weapons lest they came from her hand, as this
is the next thing to come from the mother. Gwydion proceeded to determine how to circumvent this problem and after having done so presented Lugh as a champion in need of weapons. It was only after she had presented them that she realized who he was. She then swore Lugh would have no wife, for this was the last blessing to come from the mother. However, by the work of Math, Gwydion created a woman made of the blossoms of oak, broom and meadowsweet. She was named Blodeuwydd which means “flower face”. But that’s a whole story unto itself and we’ll leave it for our Pretani cousins to take
those up.
Lugh came to the Gaelic peoples just prior to the Second Battle of Maige Tuired (moy tura). In the lore is told how He came to the Tuatha de Danaan who was being led by the Dagda. He presented Himself to be a help in the coming fight against the Fomore. He was asked several times what his skill was. Each time he told the a skill. And each time he was told that one of the Tuatha already possessed that skill. Finally he broke the stalemate by asking who amongst the Tuatha had all of the skills, as did he. None did, and so he was not only admitted into the company of the Tuatha but also given the title Il Danach which showed that he possessed all of the skills. When the mighty battle finally roared and Tuatha warrior met Fomore warrior on the field of honor, Lugh had been kept
far away from the scene. Finally he, going against the wishes of the Dagda went out to the scene of battle himself. The battle had gone hard for the Tuatha even though the weapons of Goiban repaired themselves and the healing of Dianecht brought back those who had fallen. Lugh certainly saved that day. For he put out the evil eye of Balor before it could do more damage. Yet even with the help of Lugh, the Tuatha suffered loses with the death of Nuada and others. Lugh became permanent in the company of the Tuatha. Lugh, the God of Light, was eventually wounded himself on the day that is named after him, Lughnassadh.
His death however comes in the three days preceding the Samhain, when He dies at the hand of his Tanist (his other self) who is the Lord of mis-rule.
This is said to be the festival of Lugh. However this harvest festival usually dedicated to Lugh was very often dedicated to his foster mother Tailltu. There is quite a bit of evidence that Lugh stepped into the shoes once worn by Trograinn, the son of Griann. The date of the celebration is approximately August 1st. This is the time when the warriors returned from the fields of battle to begin harvesting the crops. At this time fairs were held. Traditionally, this was also the time when marriages were contracted. There were many games and races. A great number of records still exist which show that this date held importance across all of the Gaelic lands. One of these, the 12th century manuscript of 'The Book of Leinster' tells of a fair, an 'aenach', held at Carmun in Leinster (probably south of Kildare). This fair was held once every three years; it began on 1st August and ended on the 6th. Another example is the Curragh of the Liffey, which is the most celebrated race course in Ireland. However, from the ancient lore we see the God of Light Lugh Himself, instituted the great fair of Tailltenn (now called Teltown) in honour of his foster mother Tailltiu (pronounced Telsha). The lore relates how Tailltiu's heart broke under the strain of clearing the plain that carries her name. Lugh then ordained that the fair, with feasting and games should be held there annually for all time as a memorial to Her. Tailltiu was in fact a Goddess of the Land who founded the kingship of Ireland under the Fir Bolgs, in the time before the coming of either the Tuatha de Danaan or the Gael.
It is said that the Fir Bolgs landed in Ireland at Lughnassadh, hence this festival seems to have a great deal of association with the older races of that land. The site of Tailltenn was also an ancient sacred burial place for the men of Ulster, which is traditionally the stronghold of the Fir Bolg warriors. The Fir Bolg peoples were closely associated with agriculture. Lughnassadh was an important land festival within the communities of the 'common folk'. Throughout Gaelic lands Lughnassadh is to this day known as "the festival of first fruits". It does in a very real way honor Taillitu, who as a Goddess of the Land (and sovereignty), is the Earth Mother. When considering the agricultural perhaps we can best establish the idea of the intent of this festival time by exploring the Gaelic language itself. By doing this study, we find that the name Lugh, transliterates to “the least.” As the People were still by and large living on the stores or the previous years harvest, this was the time when the stores were at the least. It was a time of looking forward to the harvest time just starting. It must to be pointed out directly, to avoid confusion, that this festival either in veneration of Tailltiu or Lughnassadh, has no connection to any concept of Corn Kings or harvest festivals, such as referenced to in Frazer’s “The Golden Bough”.
Tailltenn was the scene of the final battle between the Tuatha De Danaans and the Gaels. The Gaels here defeated the Tuatha, and it is here that they buried their three kings. After this the Gaels divided Ireland between the sons of Mil. It seems that a common element was the prevalence of horses at the fairs associated with Lughnasadh. Of course the White Stead is a common companion of Lugh in the lore. Even in the Ulster Cycle, the foot race between Macha and the chariots of macNesa speak of this. The emphasis on horse races and horsemanship seem to drive home the point. This is very significant, for the horse is the embodiment of the Goddess of Sovereignty. In this Her task seems to be to deliver spirits to OtherWolrd. A telling custom related to this belief which was once widely practiced in the coastal lands of the Gaidhealtachd was
for people to drive their horses down to the beach and into the sea on Lughnasadh.
The Fair of Tailltenn, became a major annual event held on the 1st of August, which was attended by people of all classes in Gaelic Celtic. It had all the usual attractions of a great festival, but was particularly renowned for its excellent games and its 'marriage market'.
Lughnasadh was the season of handfastings, or trial marriages that lasted a year and a day. After that time the couple had to return to the same place at the fair the following year to make their contract a permanent one. They also had the right to declare themselves divorced by walking in opposite directions away from each other. Trial marriages of a year and a day lasted up until recent centuries in many Gaelic areas.
During this time young people would often simply *pair up* with a 'brother' or 'sister' for the duration of the fair, after which they went their separate ways. As a matter of fact, even into the 18th century the ribald flavor of the Teltown Fair (Teltown being the Anglicized version of the place name) was held to be quite scandalous. In some places one whole day was dedicated to horse and chariot. In addition to the games, there were recitations of poems, genealogies and romantic tales. Music was provided by “cruits” (harps), timpans, trumpets, horns and “cuisig” or “piob” (pipes). Feats of horsemanship were performed. There were also jugglers and clowns. It seems that there were usually three distinct market places; one for food and clothes, one for livestock and another for luxury goods. If it rained during this festival, it was believed that Lugh himself was present.
Like the other fire festivals, this one too was once celebrated with great bonfires in every district. These fires lasted well into the nineteenth century in many places. In many places the elderly women would go to the cattle to tie red or blue threads onto their tails, while repeating incantations. For the milk to retain its goodness, a ball of cow's hair or 'ronag' was put into the milk pail on this day.
Curds and cheese were specially prepared from that day's milk. In many places, after the rise to dominance of Christianity, the pagan bannock became the 'Moilean Moire', dedicated to Mary. In this way the ancient customs were carried on under a thin veneer of Christianity as La Feill Moire, The Feast day of Mary. This festival falls on August 15th, very close to the ancient date of Lughnassadh before the Gregorian calendar changes. We can see many similarities between Mary as mother of Christ (the Sun King) and our ancestral Goddess of the Earth, Tailltiu, foster mother of the Sun King Lugh. La Feill Moire has retained much of its pagan roots. It is not very difficult to back-engineer this verse to regain a wholly pre-Christian expression. I shall however, leave that for the reader. In this rite the father of the household breaks the bannock, giving a piece to his wife and his children in order of age, then the whole family walk sunwise round the fire
singing the rune of Mother Mary,
'Iolach Mhoire Mhathair': On the feast day of Mary the fragrant, Mother of the Shepherd of the flocks, I cut me a handful of the new corn, I dried it gently in the sun, I rubbed it sharply from the husk With mine own palms.
I ground it in a quern of Friday I baked it on a fan of sheepskin I toasted it to a fire of rowan and I shared it round my people.
I went sunways round my dwelling In the name of Mary Mother Who promised to preserve me who did preserve and who will preserve me...
(Translated from the Gaelic by the Dal Riadh Celtic Trust)
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